Abstract
This study investigated
teachers' perceived self-efficacy in the implementation of computer
education in Nigerian secondary schools. It also examined the influence
of gender on teachers' perceived self-efficacy. One hundred and sixty-one
male and 148 female teachers were asked to indicate their experience
and level of proficiency in the use of computers. Percentage analysis
indicated that over 60% of male and female teachers do not have minimum
experience in the use of computers, in basic computer operations, and
in the use of application software. Chi-square analysis indicated no
significant difference between male and female teachers' competence
in the use of computers, basic computer operations, and in the use of
application software. Based on these findings it is recommended that
practicing teachers should be given in-service professional development
training in the use of technology, and that preservice teachers should
be given basic and advanced training in the use of technology in education.
Introduction
The contemporary age is
regarded as the knowledge age. This is a succinct recognition
of the pervasive influence of computer technologies which have made
knowledge the most prized commodity. The computer has been found useful
in space exploration, engineering, banking, medicine, communication,
commerce, and so on. The field of education has not been indifferent
to the computer revolution. Advances in the field of information and
communication technologies with their attendant impact on education
can be likened to the book revolution which occurred with the Guttenberg
invention of the movable press in the 15th century.
The computer has been used
in a variety of ways in instructional processes and in administration.
In the instructional process, through computer-assisted instruction,
integrated learning systems, and collaborative networked technologies,
among others, computer information and messages are presented to learners
through interactive process involving drill, practice, tutorials, dialogue,
practical hands-on-experience, simulation, and software that teaches
high order thinking. Computers present materials or problem situations
to students, guide their thinking, respond to their questions, and manage
their performance. That is, the computer is used to instruct so as to
achieve the desired level of proficiency (Jenkins & Springer, 2002,
Milner & Anderson, 1984, Schacter, 1999). A review of several empirical
studies in the United States indicated that computers generally have
positive effects on student achievement as students show gains in achievement
on researcher-constructed tests, standardized tests, and national tests
(Schacter, 1999). However, computer technologies have both positive
and negative impact on student achievement, and thus computers, in and
of themselves, are not panaceas for improving student achievement (Kmitta
& Davis, 2004).
From a positive standpoint
several points are noted. Through Computer Managed Instruction (CMI),
teachers can administer and guide the instructional process by scheduling
classes, budgeting, and so on. CMI involves learning support systems
that includes information organization and retrieval by students as
well as teachers and generation of materials through the computer (Milner
& Anderson, 1984).
In addition, the computer
has had tremendous impact on the school social system. It has engendered
more constructivist approaches to teaching, improved overall student
motivation to learn, to stay and behave better in school, and it has
radically changed teachers' professional development through constant
update of their knowledge on the latest technologies, and the latest
use of computers in content areas. Also, computers have been useful
as tools in ensuring a safe school environment as improved communication
is facilitated among parents, teachers, students, and administrators’
(Kmitta & Davis, 2004).
Nigeria runs a 6-3-3-4 system
of education. This translates to six years of primary school (equivalent
to American elementary school) for children ranging in age from 6 to
11 years old. The equivalent of the American middle school is the secondary
school bifurcated in Nigeria into three years of junior secondary (pre-vocational
and academic) and three years of senior secondary with core curriculum
focus. For the two levels of secondary education in Nigeria, students
range in age from 12 to 18 years. The last 4 in the Nigerian system
(6-3-3-4) refers to tertiary education offered in three-year colleges
of education that award National Certificates in Education (NCE) as
the minimum qualification for teaching in Nigerian primary schools;
in the two-year Polytechnics that award the Ordinary National Diploma
(OND); and in the two-year Higher National Diploma for technical and
vocational programs. The universities,at the highest level of tertiary
education, provide opportunities for degrees of three or more years
and postgraduate degree (M.Ed. ,M.Sc., M.A., PhD., etc) programs.
Computer education was introduced
into the Nigerian education system in the late 1980s specifically based
on the recommendation of the 32nd ministerial council meeting of the
National Council on Education in 1987. The pilot scheme for the program
was started with Federal Government Colleges (Unity Schools) and the
armed forces secondary schools in 1988. Training programs were also
conducted for 197 teachers from the schools in the pilot (Yoloye, 1990).
Computer education was introduced to bring Nigerian children into contact
with the computer so that they could use it, appreciate its potential,
understand how it works, and learn to apply the knowledge and skills
to solve emerging problems (Aminu, 1988). The computer systems were
introduced into the Federal Unity Schools throughout the federation
in 1989. The revised national policy on education (FRN, 1998; 2004)
gave prominence to computer education. For instance, in the 2004 edition,
computer education was made pre-vocational and vocational elective at
the junior and senior secondary school levels, respectively. Section
5 (30) F, of the FRN stated inter alia that, "Government shall
provide necessary infrastructure and training for the integration of
ICT in the school system in recognition of the role of ICT in advancing
knowledge and skills in the modern world" (p. 24).
It should be noted, however,
based on personal observation of the researcher and empirical findings
(Ayoola, 1994, Jegede & Owolabi, 2003) that the introduction of
computer education into schools has consisted mainly of buying a few
computers and some software. These are added to existing educational
technology facilities in schools with little in the traditional operation
of the school being affected by the presence of computers. Therefore,
they have just been added expenses on the meagre resources of the schools.
It can thus be deduced that the full potential of computers is yet to
be exploited within the Nigerian school system.
Teachers are indispensable
to successful computer education. The ultimate decision to use or not
to use the computer is dependent on the individual teachers. Successful
implementation of computer education can only be assured through teachers
who have acquired necessary knowledge and skills. If computer education
is to succeed in Nigerian schools, teachers must be competent in the
use of computers. Albion, (1999) has noted that teachers' self-efficacy
or belief in their capacity to work effectively with computers is a
significant factor in determining their patterns of computer use. He
has noted further that decisions to use computers in classrooms or in
schools are likely to be influenced by teacher beliefs. That is, teachers'
beliefs about their capacity to work effectively with computers are
a significant factor in determining patterns of classroom usage.
Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy
as "peoples' judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute
courses of action required to attain designated types of performances.
It is concerned not with the skills one has but with judgments of what
one can do with whatever skills one possesses" (p. 391). Bandura
also affirmed that self-efficacy beliefs develop in response to four
sources of information. These are enactive experience, vicarious experience,
verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective states. Enactive
experience implies that success in the performance of a given task will
increase the self-efficacy of the person who has successfully performed
the task. The vicarious involves experiences where other people are
seen to succeed or fail and how that can affect one's own self-efficacy.
Verbal persuasion, if realistic, can encourage efforts that are more
likely to increase efficacy through success, while physiological and
affective conditions such as stress can also affect self-efficacy. Compeau
and Higgins (1995) defined computer self-efficacy as the "judgment
of one's capability to use a computer" (p. 192). Computer self-efficacy
is positively correlated with a willingness to choose and participate
in computer activities, an expectation of success, the ability to persevere
when faced with computer-related difficulties, and one's computer -related
performance (Holcomb, Brown, Kulikowich, & Zheng, 2003). Computer
self-efficacy increases performance and technological innovation of
employees, reduces computer-induced anxiety, and promotes higher occupational
positions (Compeau & Higgins, 1995). In the context of this paper,
self-efficacy refers to secondary school teachers' belief in their competence
to make use of computer hardware and software.
Some empirical studies (Busch,
1995; Chen, 1986; & Koohang, 1987) have concluded that computer
experience significantly relates to a more positive attitude toward
computers. Milner (1980) opined that educational opportunities are being
missed because most teachers do not know how to use the computer nor
can they teach students about the impact of computers on society. One
of the greatest barriers to proper computer education in several parts
of the world is the shortage of trained teachers. The vast majority
of teachers simply do not know how to use computers to promote educational
efficiency, and they are not adequately trained to use modern information
media. In fact, students are more adapt at using necessary tools for
acquiring and transmitting knowledge than teachers (Kirschner, &
Selinger, 2003, Summers, 1990). In order for teachers to implement computer
education, they will need to become proficient in basic computer operations,
basic applications of software like word processing, databases, spreadsheets,
graphic software, and so forth, and the integration of computers in
teaching (Collis, 1987, Kirschner & Davis, 2003). In short, teachers
need to become sufficiently competent to make personal use of computers,
to make use of information and communication technology as a mind tool,
to become masters of a range of educational paradigms that use ICT,
and also to become sufficiently competent to make use of ICT as a tool
for teaching (Krischner & Davis, 2003).
